METAL WORKING AT THE OPPIDUM OF TŘÍSOV, SOUTH BOHEMIA — A REVIEW Alžběta Danielisová — Jan Kysela — Martin Mihaljevič — Jiří Militký his contribution summarises our state of knowledge of metal working activities in the long-researched oppidum of Třísov; from the excavations of the National Museum in the 1950s–1980s to the extensive prospections in recent years. he spatial pattern of specialised production of non-ferrous metals is outlined based on the spatial distribution of characteristic features and inds. he irst results of the chemical and isotope analyses of a selection of bronze objects are presented, pointing out the hypothesis of the extensive recycling common at the oppida in the late La Tène period that possibly involved also objects obtained through long distance contacts. Late La Tène — oppidum — bronze — metallurgy — workshop — geochemistry — isotopes INTRODUCTION In recent years several new projects have been developed aimed at the non-destructive prospection of Bohemian oppida sites while new evaluations of inds from the original excavations have been undertaken. hese projects have brought new and indeed ground-breaking results. he most interesting discoveries have been achieved in the ield of archaeometallurgy and the study in general of metal materials within the bounds of fortiied agglomerations. Methods such as metallography, geochemistry and X-ray luorescence analyses have been used. In this contribution we would like to draw attention to the outcomes of the analyses of non-ferrous metal artefacts assembled during the long-term excavations and surface prospections of the south Bohemian oppidum of Třísov (Fig. 1). Excavations conducted by the Národní museum in Prague from the 1950s to the 1980s revealed several specialised compounds under the slopes of the northern acropolis leading to the main western gate to the oppidum. hese indings could be conirmed by geophysics and especially metal detector surface surveys organised at Třísov by the Institute of Archaeology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, together with the Jihočeské muzeum in České Budějovice from 2007 until 2014. he surveys have produced more than three thousand metal artefacts that have signiicantly expanded the existing inventory of inds assembled during excavations and ofered entirely new interpretational possibilities regarding the spatial structure of the oppidum, its settlement pattern, the range and spatial organisation of specialised activities (especially the chaîne-opératoire of the copper alloys), and last but not least the oppidum’s long-distance contacts. Analyses of metal composition using XRF and ICP-MS methods have been conducted on the total assemblage including artefacts, casting refuse and technological objects. hey have revealed the routine treatment of the bronze, lead and silver alloys by specialised workers that included also imported luxury items. hese indings may also cast new light on the nature of the long-distance contacts of the late Iron Age period in Europe. LOCALISATION OF SPECIALISED ACTIVITIES AT TŘÍSOV OPPIDUM Among the most frequented areas for locating specialised activities within the oppida are – for obvious reasons – the main gates and along the main communication routes. Abundant evidence for iron, bronze and precious metals working comes from almost all of the Bohemian and Moravian oppida (Drda – Rybová 1995; Čižmář 2002a; Danielisová 2014; Křivánek – Danielisová – Drda 2013). Interiors of the enclosed settlement units both intra and extra muros have also revealed numerous traces of the specialised activities probably undertaken by their inhabitants/owners (Drda – Rybová 1995; Čižmář 1995; Čižmář 2002a; Danielisová 2014). Another frequent location for metal-working workshops at the oppida were the central areas and especially the acropoleis. A fortiied acropolis constitutes a special phenomenon Stories that made the Iron Age. Studies in honour of Natalie Venclová, Praha 2017, 83–99 83 Tab. 1. Overview of artefacts connected with metal working unearthed in different excavation zones. Excavation sector Western bailey Weiss' ield Excavation seasons whetstones 1958 3 1958–1962 21 1 2 casting mould slag (kg) crucible fragments 11.81 9 flan mould 1 Northern acropolis – centre 1965–1972 Western gate 1964–1976 3 2.11 Eastern gate 1974–1975 1 Southern acropolis 1972–1974, 2010 8 Southern margin 1964–1968, 1976–1979 6 1 12 3 Northern acropolis – margin 1981–1982 8 70 2.38 31 among the oppida of the Central Europe, the interpretation of which still remains obscure. At Třísov the combination of most signiicant traces of metal working evidenced by both the excavations and survey was the wider surroundings of the northern acropolis (Fig. 2), possibly along the route leading from the main western gate to the oppidum. Previously Břeň (1975) suggested a residential function for the southern acropolis – albeit the least known from the archaeological record – and a ritual/sacral function for the northern acropolis, especially because of the rather controversial ‘octagonal building’ of the Třísov oppidum. However, the recent indings indicate both a (probably high-rank) residential area (at the eastern slope of the northern acropolis) and intensive production activities (at the southern slopes of the northern acropolis) taking place there. In addition to the (mostly) iron workshop (Fig. 2:1), and bronze workshop excavated in 1981–82 (Fig. 2:3), another hot spot with intensive bronze working traces was discovered about 50 metres from the previously excavated area (Fig. 2:2). he spatial organisation of these features together with the blacksmith's workshop located further 65 metres to the west suggest that this whole area at the southern slopes of the northern acropolis probably constituted one large production centre with a concentration of pyro-technological devices (cf. Křivánek – Danielisová – Drda 2013, 57–60) in the direct vicinity to the main communication route connecting this place with the main western gate and leading to the high rank residential quarters at the eastern slope of the acropolis. his area comprised all kinds of metal working – iron, bronze and precious metals were fabricated there. Other, though less distinctive, traces of specialised production were discovered in the eastern part of the oppidum, the southern acropolis (John 2012) and, inally, the western bailey (Hlava 2008). 84 furnace wall 9 92.98 1 3.23 2 ++ METAL WORKING WORKSHOPS AT TŘÍSOV AS EVIDENCED BY EXCAVATIONS he oppidum of Třísov was excavated by the Národní museum, Prague between years 1954 and 1982. Unfortunately, with the exception of several preliminary reports and partial studies (Břeň 1966; 1975; 1991; Hlava 2008), these excavations remain mainly unpublished. Moreover, the excavation strategies, the nature and the present state of their documentation make any attempt at their assessment quite a challenging task. herefore, in order to get a full picture of evidence for metallurgical activities encountered during the excavations (Tab. 1, Figs. 1–2, cf. also Kysela 2017a) we took in consideration published data, available excavation diaries and other irst-hand documentation, as well as the relevant artefacts (inventoried or not) kept in the Národní muzeum. As a matter of fact, for some of the excavation sectors, the crates of non-inventoried slag are the only available documentation which may help us fathom the extent of local metallurgical activities. he majority of the excavated sectors of the oppidum produced some evidence of metal working with the proportion of bronze and iron working varying greatly from one zone to another. The workshop behind the western gate he most coherent documentation comes from the zone behind the main (western) gate (Fig. 2:1). A workshop is reported to have been excavated here in 1976. While fragments of crucibles and casting moulds hint at presence of bronze smelting, the bulk of available evidence (almost 100kg of iron slag) prove also quite extensive iron working. Alžběta Danielisová — Jan Kysela — Martin Mihaljevič — Jiří Militký Fig. 1. The oppidum of Třísov, southern Bohemia. Excavation and prospection activities prior to 2014. 1 – northern acropolis, 2 – southern acropolis, 3 – Weiss´s field, 4 – eastern part of the oppidum, 5 – western gate, 6 – eastern gate, 7 – western bailey, area outside the main gate. Fig. 2. Northern acropolis of the Třísov oppidum. 1 – iron workshop behind the main western gate (excavation J. Břeň 1974–1976, unpublished); 2 –concentration of production-related finds on the southern slopes of the northern acropolis (green area reflects the extrapolated concentration density of bronze casting spills); 3 – area of supposed bronze workshop (excavated by the Národní muzeum in 1981; cf. Kysela 2017a). Metal-working at the oppidum of Třísov — a review 85 In light of this evidence, the area in immediate proximity to the western gate seems to have been one of the areas within the oppidum particularly dedicated to metal production. Unfortunately, the available documentation does not make clear anything about its nature – a workshop within a multi-functional settlement unit or a dedicated ‘industrial’ quarter? The central area of the oppidum From the so-called ‘Weiss’ ield’ and from the southern margin of the oppidum (both originally believed to have been residential areas) come fragments of crucibles – respectively nine and three – as well as 12kg of iron slag from each. hough we cannot be sure if the amounts of slag recorded in the Národní muzeum correspond to that of slag unearthed or if they result from a sampling strategy). It is worth noting, however, that among the slag from the ‘Weiss’s ield’, there are ive lat circular lumps of iron slag, weighing in total 4kg, probably from the base of iron smelting furnaces (inv. nos 144294 and 146294). The unfortified western bailey A rescue excavation in the unfortiied western bailey of the oppidum in 1958 failed to detect any substantial evidence of bronze or iron working; on the other hand an isolated ind of a lan mould – the only one known to date from the oppidum – attests to the presence of the activity of coin lan casting, albeit it is questionable whether this took place at this particular area (Hlava 2008, 151–152, obr. 5:12). Unambiguous evidence of coin lan casting conducted at unfortiied baileys of the oppida in central Europe comes for example from Staré Hradisko (Čižmář 1995). The southern acropolis and eastern parts of the oppidum he limited ieldwork in the southern acropolis only produced evidence of a possible smithing workshop (John 2012), while in the surroundings of the eastern gate there is a single mould fragment and some slag. Stone casting moulds claimed to have been discovered in this area by Břeň have not been identiied with certainty in the collections of the Národní muzeum, though they can be probably associated with a series of un-inventoried stones with trapezoidal cavities. hese cavities are, however, not man-made but are certainly of natural origin. 86 The northern acropolis he central part of the northern acropolis seems to be almost free of any evidence of metal working but it has to be borne in mind that this zone has been heavily affected by erosion. On the contrary, in the south-eastern corner of the northern acropolis extremely numerous mould and crucible fragments as well as some iron slag were discovered during the excavations in 1981–82 (Kysela 2017a). hough excavated as a bronze working workshop, the excavation in this area failed to convincingly identify (or properly document) any architectural, let alone production features such as any pyro-technological devices, construction features and so forth. he inds also include – besides some production waste (bronze slags, scrap bronze sheet and casting spills) – loom weights and fragments of glass jewellery. We prefer therefore, to identify this as evidence of waste accumulation rather than of a workshop per se; the sheer amount of production waste is, nonetheless, convincing proof of the presence of a bronze working taking place somewhere around the vicinity of the northern acropolis. Given the uncertainty of our identiication, we cannot be sure if iron (the slag) and bronze (the moulds and crucibles) were worked in the same workshop; the bronze casting waste on the other hand gives a very uniform impression. Remains of at least 16 crucibles (31 fragments in total) are present, all of them cup-shaped as is characteristic for the oppida of Bohemia and Moravia (Čižmář 2002a, 300–301; Čižmář 2002b, 248, 253). Interestingly enough, the volumes1 of the majority of crucibles whose shape could be completely reconstructed cluster around ixed – and mutually related – values of 0.5, 0.1 and 0.05 litres2 as if the crucibles were produced following a certain measurement system (Fig. 3). he rests of metal clinging to the crucible walls, were in all cases bronze – precious metals have not been detected (cf. Fig. 4). Moulds are represented by 70 fragments, half of which comprising either fragments with sprue channels or by fragments with visible imprints of the cast objects. All of these mould fragments seem to have served for casting a single though not so far identiied type of artefact – an arched gutter shaped object with trapezoidal section (Fig. 5). 1 Volume of the objects was calculated using the application ‘Calculation of the capacity of a vessel from its proile’ devised by the Free University of Brussels: http://capacity.ulb.ac.be/ index.php. 2 he values correspond to the volumes of entire crucibles, which naturally would never be illed lush with molten metal. Alžběta Danielisová — Jan Kysela — Martin Mihaljevič — Jiří Militký Scatterplot of Ag+Au against Cu+Sn; 33v*298c 0.04 0.035 Ag+Au [wt.%] 0.03 0.025 0.02 0.015 0.01 0.005 0 0 5 cm -0.005 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 Cu+Sn [wt.%] 0.9 l 0.8 l 0.7 l Fig. 4. Geochemical composition of the (selected) crucibles and slags from the workshop at the south-eastern slope of the northern acropolis. type: slag, type: crucible 0.6 l 0.5 l 0.4 l 0.3 l 0.2 l 0.1 l Fig. 3. Crucibles from the area of bronzeworking workshop at the northern acropolis and their possibly standardised volumes. To sum up, the excavations of the Národní museum in Třísov attest to the presence of iron working in virtually all the intramural parts of the oppidum, in most cases accompanied by bronze casting. Unfortunately, the nature and state of documentation do not permit any more precise conclusions concerning for example the location of workshops, the relation of workshops to the settlement units or between the iron and bronze production, the ‘excavation zones’ being the most precise category with which we can work. Still, two areas stand out from the point of view of evidence of metal working: the western gate (Fig. 2:1) for iron production and the southern slope of the northern acropolis (Fig. 2:3) as far as bronze casting is concerned. Also the probable iron smelting detected at ‘Weiss's ield’ is worth mentioning here. NON-FERROUS METAL WORKING DISCOVERED BY SURFACE PROSPECTION Extensive surface prospection was conducted at the Třísov oppidum in years 2007–2014. During this period the whole area of the oppidum both intra and extra muros was surveyed. he aim of this long-term project was primarily securing the archaeological metal objects from the topsoil while at the same time maintaining their spatial relationships. Eight research seasons brought nearly three thousand metal inds that greatly multiply the total assemblage of existing inds from the excavations and ofer new interpretative possibilities regarding the spatial structure of the agglomeration, its spectrum of specialised activities, long-distance contacts and exchange patterns. For methodological reasons (described in Danielisová – Militký 2014; Kysela – Danielisová – Militký 2014) surface prospections were oriented chiely on collecting the non-ferrous metals. herefore the inds evidencing specialised activities are metal artefacts related to bronze and precious metals such as silver. he most distinctive concentration of inds related to bronze and silver production appears to have been located at the southern slope of the northern acropolis (Fig. 2:2) respectively in between the workshops behind the western gate and the south-eastern slope of the northern acropolis. his suggests that this whole area spanning from the western gate to its south-eastern corner of the northern acropolis Metal-working at the oppidum of Třísov — a review 87 Fig. 5. Three fragments of casting moulds from the 1981–82 excavation. ø 12 0 5 cm ø 14 ø 12 possibly constituted one extensive production district alongside one of the main communication routes. his spatial organisation is commonly evidenced on a number of western European oppida such as Manching (Sievers 2007; Wendling 2013), Bibracte (Hamm 2005; Guillaumet – Dhennequin 2008) or Villeneuve-St-Germain (Debord 1993; in general: Meylan et al. 2002), but this has not previously been reliably attested at any Czech sites. Other evidence of – certainly less intensive – specialised activities comes from the eastern part of the oppidum (Fig. 1). The southern slope of the northern acropolis he concentration of the metal inds related to craft-production activities was located in an area covering approximately 50×30m. As it is certain that the objects were gradually dislocated by subsequent long-term ploughing activities we can assume that this spatial concentration may be a remnant of originally one or more production devices. he spectrum of artefacts comprises: casting spills – about 800 specimens of the 5.5kg of total weight, 26 technological objects such as casting sprues, and total of 114 semi-products, rejects (including the rare ind of discarded product still embedded in a clay form) and inished products. he spectrum of inds evidences the whole chaîne opératoire of one speciic type of artefact – a bronze bead (Fig. 6). Beside this the production of silver coins was detected by several inds of small silver casts intended for minting, and three silver ingots. ORGANISATION OF SPECIALISED PRODUCTION BY SCIENTIFIC ANALYSES OF ARTEFACTS he collection of inds assembled especially during the prospection activities in 2007–2014 was subjected to a number of geochemical analyses the aim of which was to answer the following fundamental questions regarding the organisation of specialised production at Třísov oppidum: – What was the chemical composition of copper alloys of various artefact groups? – What was the material source for the fabrication of the bronze beads? – What is the provenance of the bronze material in artefacts from the Třísov oppidum? X-ray luorescence analysis (XRF) was applied for the basic characterisation of the chemical composition of alloys for bulk of the objects collected during the surveys. he analysis was performed using a hand-held portable NITON XL2/3 XRF analyser (pXRF). he analysis was conducted on a cleaned surface from which the patina was removed in order to obtain measurements from the original metal core of the objects. he lens diameter of the XRF analyser was set to 3mm and measuring time was 60 seconds. For comparison two measurements were performed on each object – one on the patina and one on the cleaned surface.3 In total a little less than two thousands 3 Only results from the cleaned surfaced will be presented here. 88 Alžběta Danielisová — Jan Kysela — Martin Mihaljevič — Jiří Militký casting spills ? semi-products, rejects forms technological objects finished products casting sprues casting refuse 0 3 cm Fig. 6. Reconstruction of a chaîne opératoire of manufacturing bronze beads basing on finds from the production area at the southern slope of the northern acropolis. of – presumably, that is – visually determined copper-alloy objects were subjected to the analysis. he main research aims were: 1) detection of possible ancient brass (the admixture of Zn in copper-alloy) objects: this would evidence their origin either in the Mediterranean area or hypothetical fabrication of brass in the La Tène zone; 2) characterisation of the ‘typical’ copper-alloy compositions for individual types of artefacts, such as jewellery, southern imports, amulets, and technological objects, occurring at Třísov; 3) detecting the technological aspects of the local fabrication of bronze pearls – especially what source material was used; and 4) to identify the locally and/or externally produced objects that is whether the artefacts interpreted as imports have the same geochemical properties as the locally produced objects, whether there are any diferences or, materially speaking, whether the bronzes from Třísov oppidum represent in fact one more or less homogenous group. Overview of the results – characterisation of the non-ferrous alloys from Třísov he chemical composition of copper-alloys objects from Třísov can be characterised by a combination of three major elements, copper-tin-lead (Cu-Sn-Pb), with an admixture of several trace elements such as antimony (Sb), arsenic (As), nickel (Ni), bismuth (Bi), cobalt (Co), or silver (Ag). Composition and ratio of the major elements can relect technological objectives of the ancient bronze smelters or speciic material requirements for the individual groups of artefacts. Trace elements, beside technological aspects (such as smelting temperature), can be symptomatic in questions of provenance (cf. Pernicka 1999; 2014; Villa 2016). If there is an admixture of zinc (Zn) in artefacts we can consider the presence of brass. Overall the composition of alloys at Třísov is quite variable (Fig. 7). Most objects are characterised by a combination of major three elements (Cu-Sn-Pb) with diferent ratios of Sn and Pb. Higher amounts of Sn observed in individual proportions can be attributed to the efect of patina Metal-working at the oppidum of Třísov — a review 89 despite cleaning of surfaces before the analysis and the inhomogeneous character of ancient alloys in general (Frána et al. 2009, 104–105). here is also quite a substantial group of objects with very little or no amount of Pb at all; this comprises certain groups of artefacts such as particular types of brooches (see below). Some artefacts, most often from the category of presumed imports or brooches lack Sn or have very small amounts in their compositions. Precious metals such as silver and gold are represented mostly by coins. Purely Pb or Zn objects are those most probably of recent origin or, in case of Pb, can be related to production processes. Generally, our indings correspond with the character of alloys at other oppida sites in Europe (Penz 2012; Schwab 2013; 2014). An important issue is the question of the presence of brass (Cu+Zn) among the analysed objects from Třísov. We were able to trace the admixture of Zn among but few of the objects within the ‘import’ category of artefacts (Kysela – Danielisová – Militký 2014, 591–593). Others have either too high an amount of Zn to be considered of ancient, that is, prehistoric origin (Droberjar – Frána 2004) or they cannot be reliably interpreted as La Tène artefacts. Usually these constitute quite non-descriptive categories such as spills, wires, sheets and so forth. herefore for now, we can probably rule out the possibility of local late La Tène fabrication of brass. his is in accordance with the generally low occurrence of brass within La Tène Europe north of the Alps (Istenič – Šmit 2007; Militký 2010, 54; Kysela 2016, 45–47). he situation changes no earlier than in the early Roman Period (Droberjar – Frána 2004, 443). Zn 1% ZnCu 4% Ag(CuPbAu) 7% Au(AgCu) 1% AgCu 0% CuPb 0% Pb 2% SnCu 16% CuSnPb 69% Fig. 7. Relative composition of non-ferrous alloys in the analysed objects from Třísov. 90 Compositional characteristic of various artefact groups he results of the pXRF analysis showed that there were not only quite substantial diferences among the functional groups of artefacts – brooches, amulets, imports, technological objects and so forth – but that there was also noticeable variability within the categories themselves. On the other hand, we have noted that individual typological groups of artefacts were characterised by uniformity or at least similarity of their chemical compositions; in other words, the relative ratios of the three major elements Cu-Sn-Pb (Fig. 8). he reasons for this may be technological: for example the higher amount of Pb in Almgren 65 brooches versus the absence or very low amounts of Pb in Nauheim brooches can possibly be explained by their diferent methods of fabrication or perhaps their diferent dating. Absence of Zn in Almgren 65 brooches can also suggest their local, central European production. he same pattern of the compositional similarity of the individual typological categories can be observed in case of other personal objects such as strap-ends and belt-hooks. Particularly distinctive coherence in chemical composition, indicated by comparatively higher amount of Pb, was observed in case of the spoked wheels, a typical category of late La Tène artefacts. In such a case we may theoretically consider cultural background as a factor playing a rôle in the character of speciic alloys. Diferences in chemical composition of alloys can also be chronological – the serial bronze casting of brooches during the later phases of the oppida occupation is relected in the occurrence of nearly identical Almgren 65 specimens (Danielisová – Militký 2014, 49–50), or this may have been caused by difering places of origin as suggested for the north Italian origin of Almgren 65 brooches as well as other types of artefacts (Demetz 1999, 28; Sedlmayer 2009, 118–119; Danielisová – Militký 2014; Kysela – Danielisová – Militký 2014). On the contrary, quite variable is the group of Mediterranean imports comprising vessel parts (handles, bases), strainers, simpula (ladles), and mirrors (see further Kysela – Danielisová – Militký 2014, 591–593). his group can be generally characterised by slightly higher amount of Sn and lower coherence within individual types excepting perhaps for mirrors and strainers. his can be possibly explained by the mixing of various resources from the Mediterranean area (see also below) or the greater efect of patina when measuring generally thinner objects such as vessel parts or mirrors. Generally, however, the results are comparable with the compositional values of similar objects from the Altenburg oppidum (cf. Penz 2012, 806, 828–929). Alžběta Danielisová — Jan Kysela — Martin Mihaljevič — Jiří Militký Cu A 37v*40c B 0 1 0.25 0.25 0.5 0.75 A 65 Beltz Korallenfibel Mötschwil Nauheim Shield bow 0 0.75 1 Sn Pb Cu C 0 0 30v*41c 0.75 0.5 0.5 0.75 1 0 1 Pb 1 palmette zoomorf circle Lochgürtelh. strap end 0 1 0.25 0.75 0.75 Pb Cu 0.5 0.5 0.5 Sn 0.25 0.25 0.25 D 0.75 Sn 1 0.75 0.5 0 0.25 35v*10c 0 1 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 0.5 0.75 0.5 0.25 0.25 35v*20c 0 1 0.75 0.5 0 Cu 0.25 1 0 0 Sn 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 Pb strainer Idria base (vessel) Eggers simpulum mirror Fig. 8. Ratio of Cu-Sn-Pb (determined by pXRF) within the individual functional groups of artefacts: A – brooches; B – belt hooks and strap ends; C – spoked wheels; D – imports (vessels, strainers, mirrors). he analysis of the semi-products and technological objects was centred on establishing the potential beginning and the end of the production chain – the chaÎne opératorie – of the manufacturing of the bronze beads that were discovered within the production district at the southern slope of the northern acropolis (Fig. 9). Technological objects and semi-products found within the established area of the production district have quite corresponding chemical composition. Values of the production-related objects also overlap with the end-products (the beads) though the spectrum of their Cu-Sn-Pb ratios is somewhat wider. his, beside the potential measuring bias, can also testify to the various sources of material or various places of origin; not all the beads found at Třísov may have necessarily been fabricated in the local workshop(s). Seemingly low overlapping with the objects from the ‘imports’ group (compare Figs. 8 and 9), where the centre of gravity of the material used for production lies in lower Sn values, can signify the lower preference for recycling of these items or intended changes in the composition of target alloys while recycling. However, in order to conirm this hypothesis, more precise measurements are needed. In order to achieve more accurate values of the chemical composition of individual artefacts groups from the Třísov oppidum, a selection of objects from each category of artefacts was measured using Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometer (ICP-MS).4 he bulk chemical composition was determined following procedures employed for the samples which are given elsewhere (Ettler et al. 2009). he digests were used for analysis of Ag, As, Bi, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Mo, Mn, Fe, Ni, Pb, Sb, Tl, U, Zn by quadrupole-based ICP-MS (hermoScientiic XseriesII, Germany). 4 Measurements using ICP-MS (hermoScientiic XseriesII were conducted at the Institute of Geochemistry, Mineralogy and Mineral Resources, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague. Metal-working at the oppidum of Třísov — a review 91 Cu 35v*144c 0 1 0.25 0.75 0.5 0.5 0.75 0.25 1 0 0 Sn 0.25 0.5 0.75 technological objects semi-products pearls 1 Pb Fig. 9. Ratio of Cu-Sn-Pb (determined by pXRF) of the production related objects from the southern slope of the northern acropolis. he Pb isotopic composition was analysed by ICP-MS in solutions diluted to 10µg/L Pb. Correction for the mass bias was performed using NIST 981 (common lead) between measurements of the individual samples. Resulting values (Fig. 10) conirm the previously detected uniformity in composition of individual types of artefacts such as brooches or mirrors, and variability within the imports group especially what concerns the vessels and their functional parts (handles, bases etc.). ‘Imports’ now also show similar ratios with the manufactured bronze objects which generally overlap with other items possibly produced by casting. Provenance of the Třísov bronzes In a publication concerning the Mediterranean imports from Třísov we have addressed a particular issue regarding the complex function of Mediterranean bronzes in late La Tène society (Kysela – Danielisová – Militký 2014, 600–601). Beside their original function as probably luxury items complementing the social status of the élite oppida inhabitants, we advanced a hypothesis about their secondary function as material destined for recycling. Fragmented pieces of metal certainly would have represented a valuable source for recasting; the fact that fragmented ‘imports’ were found dispersed almost everywhere within the oppidum may supply evidence of this possible reuse. It is true that the idea of Mediterranean imports as an external source of bronze metal need further veriication especially from the point of view of data from the presumed areas of origin. On the other hand there is absolutely no evidence (or data) for circulation 92 of the raw material for bronze production – such as pure copper – from the territory of Bohemia.5 he question of the source material supply and its organisation naturally arises. his further points to the broader issue of the context of late La Tène non-ferrous metal management which has proved to be quite extensive. he question of provenance of most of ancient metals can be resolved with regard to certain interpretational issues, using the analyses of Pb isotopes. Isotopic tracers in archaeometry are often used to reveal the origin and distributional patterns of artefacts (Pernicka 1999; 2014; Rehren – Pernicka 2008; Baron et al. 2014; Gale – Stos-Gale 1982; Gale 1999; Ettler et al. 2015; Villa 2016 etc.). In combination with metallography and other chemical analyses (especially trace elements) isotope tracing can result in promising results in distributional studies of source materials. Isotopic signatures are the most often based on three isotopes 206Pb, 207Pb and 208Pb (Faure – Mensing 2005, 897). Two independent isotopic ratios can then be considered: 207 Pb/206Pb and 208Pb/206Pb. he Pb isotopic composition of 50 selected artefacts from Třísov was determined using ICP-MS. he selection of samples aimed to represent each major category of artefacts found at Třísov: imports, production related objects (semi-products, technological objects, beads), brooches and other personal objects, and also some exceptional inds such as the big duck's head and human leg (cf. Kysela – Danielisová – Militký 2014, 574, nos. 54 and 54b). For comparative reasons more than one object per category has always been selected. As the results show (Fig. 11), the values of 207Pb/206Pb and 208Pb/206Pb are quite homogenous and vary as follows: 207 Pb/206Pb = 0.832–0.841 ± 0.004, and 208Pb/206Pb = 2.068–2.088 ± 0.008. his is surprising considering the presumed typological variability of diferent artefact groups as to their place of origin – chiely ‘local’ or ‘Mediterranean’. More importantly, the production-related objects seem to have a similar isotopic signature as the category of imports as well as other artefacts. Overlaying the Pb isotopic values of Třísov bronzes with the signatures of European and Mediterranean area ores shows an overlap with the latter (Fig. 12). Our results are consistent with those from oppidum of Manching (Schwab 2014, 182–184). It is certain that the Pb isotopic signature we have obtained does not represent one single source, but is almost every time the result of mixing of several sources. In the case of copper-alloys it is most often due to recycling 5 Preliminary analyses of technical ceramics (crucibles) from Třísov have revealed only alloyed metal (Cu+Sn or Cu+Sn+Pb). Alžběta Danielisová — Jan Kysela — Martin Mihaljevič — Jiří Militký 10v*48c Fig. 10. Ratio of Cu-Sn-Pb of selected objects from Třísov analyzed by ICP-MS (Cu concentrations have been divided by 10 more clearly to reflect different groups of copper alloys). Cu/10 0 1 0.25 0.75 0.5 0.5 0.75 1 0 Sn 0.25 0.25 0.5 0.75 0 1 Pb which was on a massive scale towards the late La Tène period especially at the oppida (cf. Leicht – Sievers 1998, 60–62; Schwab 2014). he diagram of the two Pb isotope ratios (Figs. 11 and 12) has a common denominator (206Pb) which means that the mixing trend is shown along the linear line. his line can be used to estimate the inal values of the array which deine the original Pb-isotopic signature of the two mixing metals (cf. Bendall et al. 2009, 610). In this case the end members still lie in the Mediterranean zone, in fact they are consistent with several possible lead deposits including Italy (Tuscany), Aegean (Cyclades) and south-eastern Spain (Murcia, Almeria). According to historic sources (Trincherini et al. 2009; Hirt 2010) the only lead mining activities in these areas contemporary with the occupation of the oppida are those from Spain. We may assume that lead exploited there was transported to Italy (Trincherini et al. 2009, ig. 5) and from northern Italy it was transported to transalpine areas in the form of (leaded) alloys. We have demonstrated several important points – how widespread recycling was and therefore also the efectiveness and complexity of the non-ferrous metal management from the material sourcing to the inal fabrication of products. We may also be observing hints that it was perhaps more efective actually to import ready produced bronze material even from considerable distances than to source it locally. In this case the system of sourcing the bronze corresponds to the possible system of sourcing silver where its Mediterranean origin is wheel pendant semi-product pearl technological object import-vessel import other mirror ‘duck’ Almgren 65 Nauheim also often suggested, generally for lack of any other evidence (Bendall et al. 2009, 614). However, there are still too many unknowns in this theory. here is no form in which the source material may have been transported; we are really dealing only with the scrap metal. We also as yet do not know whether this was the situation exclusively for the oppida or whether it was characteristic for other settlements or contexts. he occurrence of objects at the oppida is also no reliable proof that the material for their fabrication was imported during the late La Tène period or for instance sooner. In any case, in order to obtain comparative data more analyses from diferent environments are needed. CONCLUSION In this article we have attempted to provide a review of indings made to date of bronze manufacturing at the oppidum of Třísov. We have especially tried to demonstrate how a complex approach targeted on speciic issues can bring new and often surprising results. We have addressed the issue from several diferent levels – the on-site spatial pattern of possible production area(s), through the character of production and the chaîne opératoire, to questions of technology and provenance based on chemical and isotopic analyses of local inds. At Třísov, the concentration of bronze production evidence occurred especially on the southern slope of the Metal-working at the oppidum of Třísov — a review 93 23v*52c Fig. 11. 207Pb/206Pb vs. Pb/206Pb isotope plot showing the isotopic compositions for selected artefacts. 208 2.094 2.090 208/206 2.086 2.082 2.078 2.074 2.070 2.066 0.830 0.834 0.838 0.842 0.846 Nauheim ‘import’ ‘production’ mirror A65 spoked wheel 207/206 northern acropolis possibly directly in connection to the main communication route. his may suggest a production zone or a district of some sort as is known from the major oppida sites in Western Europe (for example at Manching, Bibracte and Villeneuve-St-Germain), but so far there is no reliable evidenced of such a specialised location on any of the Czech sites. Unfortunately we are not able to add much about the tools used in production or about the form and organisation of the workshops themselves; the archaeological evidence is still too scarce. Amongst the interesting aspects of local production, however, is an evident specialisation on particular types of artefact – the clearest example is evidence for the fabrication of bronze beads in the workshop discovered recently by the surface prospection on the southern slope of the northern acropolis. Clay moulds found during excavations in its south-eastern corner suggest the exclusive production of what have been termed ‘gutter shaped trapezoidal objects’. his phenomenon is not unique for Třísov – the bronze workshop identiied in the Kelheim oppidum seems to have specialised in the production of nave-hoops (Schäfer 2000) and the workshops of Bibracte apparently exclusively produced a few speciic types of brooches (Hamm 2005). We cannot say, of course, whether the workshops were inherently specialised on 94 a single type of object; we may recall the possibility of the local production of Almgren 65 brooches. It is much more likely that accumulations of mould fragments tend to relect haphazardly captured single events, such as the commissioning of a particular type of object rather than the normal production of the workshop. Even so, the fact that single types of objects were evidently produced in bulk is indicative of a certain level of socio-economic organisation of production. he chemical composition of individual artefact groups has shown expected results such as quite rare presence of Zn in other objects than those from the category of imports, and even in this case its occurrence was rare. On the other hand the chemical composition of diferent groups of objects showed distinctive regularities in the group of locally produced alloys in contrast to Mediterranean imports where we were able to observe a higher degree of variability amongst and even within the individual types. On the contrary, a strong correlation was detected while examining the individual typological groups of objects, such as brooches, belt accessories and spoked wheels. We may suggest that regular recycling of Mediterranean imports probably formed some part of the source material used for the fabrication of local bronzes. Quite Alžběta Danielisová — Jan Kysela — Martin Mihaljevič — Jiří Militký 2.14 Fig.12. 207Pb/206Pb vs. 208 Pb/206Pb isotope plot showing the trend of Třísov bronzes in relation to European and Mediterranean ores (European and Mediterranean Pb isotopic data plots based on Klein et al. 2004; Durali-Müller 2005). 2.13 2.12 208 Pb/206Pb 2.11 2.1 2.09 2.08 2.07 2.06 2.05 0.825 0.835 0.845 0.855 207 0.865 0.875 Pb/206Pb 2.12 208 Pb/206Pb 2.10 2.08 2.06 2.04 0.82 0.83 0.84 0.85 207 0.86 0.87 0.88 Pb/ Pb 206 surprisingly, however, the Pb isotopes place the provenance of all the copper alloys from Třísov in the western Mediterranean area, speciically the mines in Murcia and Almeria regions. hese data – however intriguing – are naturally not suicient for postulating dependence of La Tène bronze working only on the importing of the raw material from the Mediterranean. his question, however, deserves serious further investigation and contextualisation together with data from other regions, socio-economic milieus – such as oppida contrasting with open settlements – as well as evidence from other periods. In fact, even if all the raw bronze smelted in the oppida came from the Mediterranean, we cannot be sure whether it was being imported directly for the needs of oppida producers or if they were only recasting objects from bronze which had been circulating in the transalpine world for up to of several decades. he importing of raw material might have taken various forms – complete discarded object, scrap metal, casting spills or bronze/tin/lead/silver ingots – all of which are somewhat tricky to identify for what they actually are. It is impossible to tell if an object was imported to serve its original function, recycled after fulilling its function or originally intended for recasting only (Kysela – Danielisová – Militký 2014; Kysela 2017b). Scrap metal or anonymous copper/bronze/lead ingots can be hardly recognised as being imported without undertaking painstaking efort in analysing their composition and correctly evaluating their results. he idea itself, however, ought not to be completely dismissed on methodological grounds. hat raw metals or rather metals in general constituted a part of long-distance contacts – and perhaps of prestigious exchange within them – is clearly hinted at by the recent discovery of a brass ingot in the Bratislava Metal-working at the oppidum of Třísov — a review 95 castle.6 his brass bar was recovered from a clearly deined context, the inill of the masonry Roman building II in which it was associated with objects including numerous local and imported coins, fragments of imported glass and possibly also metal vessels, a large quantity of wine amphorae, lumps of unworked amber and a piece of gold leaf. he presence of the brass ingot amongst such a unique accumulation of prestige goods makes it very clear that raw metals made part of the exchange circuits run by the topmost elites of La Tène society and its material – brass – reveal Romans (or rather Italians) as one of the probable constituent parts in this exchange pattern. he data from Třísov and Manching show that such a scenario might also have taken place in southern Bohemia and Bavaria albeit perhaps on a less prestigious level and including less hi-tech material than brass. In any case, the new results achieved as to bronze working in the oppidum of Třísov open new insights and stresses the high organisational level and hence the high complexity of the late La Tène socio-economic structure of the oppida. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Support of the project from the Czech Science Foundation no. 13-24707S ‘Celtic coin production in Bohemia in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC’ and of the Charles University program PROGRES Q 09: ‘History – he key to understanding the globalized world’ is gratefully acknowledged. Part of the equipment used for this study was purchased from the Operational Programme Prague – Competitiveness (Project CZ.2.16/3.1.00/21516). BIBLIOGRAPHY Baron, S. – Tămaş, C. G. – Le Carlier, C. 2014: How Mineralogy and Geochemistry can improve the Signiicance of Pb Isotopes in Metal Provenance Studies. 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Wendling, H. 2013: Manching reconsidered: New Perspectives on Settlement Dynamics and Urbanization in Iron Age Central Europe. European Journal of Archaeology 16/3, 459–490. Alžběta Danielisová Institute of Archaeology CAS, Prague, v.v.i. Letenská 4 CZ-118 01, Prague 1 danielisova@arup.cas.cz Jan Kysela Institute of Classical Archaeology, Faculty of Arts, Charles University Celetná 20 CZ-116 42, Prague 1 jan.kysela@hotmail.com Martin Mihaljevič Institute of Geochemistry, Mineralogy and Mineral Resources, Faculty of Science, Charles University Albertov 6 CZ-128 43 Prague 2 mihal@natur.cuni.cz Jiří Militký Národní Muzeum Václavské nám. 68 CZ-115 79, Prague 1 militky.jiri@seznam.cz Metal-working at the oppidum of Třísov — a review 99